AQA A-level Psychology · 4.3.1

Issues and debates in Psychology

50 exam-style questions with answers for 4.3.1 Issues and debates in Psychology in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
What is meant by universality in Psychology? [2 marks]
Answer:
The aim of developing theories that apply to all people, regardless of gender or culture (1); gender and cultural bias can prevent theories from being universal (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
Explain what is meant by androcentrism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Centring theories and research on the male perspective (1); so male behaviour is seen as the 'norm' and female behaviour that differs is judged abnormal or inferior (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
Explain what is meant by alpha bias, and give an example. [3 marks]
Answer:
Theories that exaggerate the differences between men and women (1); differences are presented as fixed and inevitable, often undervaluing women (1); e.g. Freud's view that women have a weaker superego because they do not experience castration anxiety (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
Explain what is meant by beta bias, and give an example. [3 marks]
Answer:
Theories that ignore or minimise differences between men and women (1); often because research uses male participants and assumes findings apply to women (1); e.g. the fight or flight response was based on male animals, but Taylor et al. (2000) found women show a 'tend and befriend' response (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
Explain one way in which gender bias in Psychology could be reduced. [2 marks]
Answer:
Researchers can adopt a reflexive approach, recognising how their own values affect their research (1); and including women in samples and on research teams helps avoid androcentrism (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.3.1 · Gender bias
Explain one consequence of gender bias in Psychology. [2 marks]
Answer:
It may promote sexism in the research process, e.g. women are under-represented as researchers (1); and it may validate discriminatory practices, giving scientific justification to deny women opportunities (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.3.1 · Cultural bias
Explain what is meant by ethnocentrism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture (1); behaviour that does not conform to that culture's norms is seen as deficient or abnormal, e.g. the Strange Situation's interpretation of Japanese infants (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.3.1 · Cultural bias
Explain what is meant by cultural relativism. [2 marks]
Answer:
The idea that behaviour can only be properly understood within the cultural context in which it occurs (1); norms and values vary between cultures, so they should not be judged by the standards of another culture (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.3.1 · Cultural bias
Distinguish between etic and emic approaches. [2 marks]
Answer:
An etic approach studies a culture from the outside and assumes findings are universal (1); an emic approach studies behaviour from within a culture, identifying behaviours specific to it (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.3.1 · Cultural bias
Explain why the individualism–collectivism distinction may no longer apply. [2 marks]
Answer:
Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies showed no evidence of the traditional view that the US is individualist and Japan collectivist (1); globalisation means cultures are increasingly mixed, so the distinction may be outdated (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain the difference between hard and soft determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Hard determinism: all behaviour has a cause, so free will is an illusion (1); soft determinism: behaviour has a cause but we have some conscious mental control over how we act within a range of options (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain the difference between biological and environmental determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Biological determinism: behaviour is caused by biological factors such as genes or neurotransmitters, outside our control (1); environmental determinism: behaviour is caused by past conditioning and reinforcement (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain what is meant by psychic determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Freud argued behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts, often repressed in childhood (1); so even accidents or slips of the tongue are not chance, but driven by the unconscious (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain the scientific emphasis on causal explanations. [2 marks]
Answer:
Science aims to discover universal laws of cause and effect (1); in experiments, the IV is manipulated to see its effect on the DV, which assumes behaviour is determined (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain one strength of the free will position. [2 marks]
Answer:
It has face validity, as most people feel they make choices every day (1); and research shows people with an internal locus of control, who believe they have free will, tend to be mentally healthier (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.3.1 · Free will and determinism
Explain one limitation of hard determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
It does not fit with the legal system, which holds offenders morally responsible for their actions (1); and it is unfalsifiable, as there is always a cause that we may not yet have found (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Outline the nature-nurture debate. [2 marks]
Answer:
Nature: behaviour is determined by inherited, innate characteristics, e.g. genes (1); nurture: behaviour is a result of environmental influences, e.g. learning, family and culture (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Explain how heritability is measured. [2 marks]
Answer:
A heritability coefficient from 0 to 1 shows the extent to which a characteristic is due to genes (1); e.g. the heritability of IQ is about 0.5, suggesting genes and environment are equally important (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Explain the interactionist approach to the nature-nurture debate. [3 marks]
Answer:
Nature and nurture are not separate but interact to affect behaviour (1); e.g. the diathesis-stress model: a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) leads to a disorder only if triggered by an environmental stressor (1); and epigenetics: life experiences change gene expression without altering DNA, and this can be passed to future generations (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Explain the difference between the levels of environment. [2 marks]
Answer:
The environment can be prenatal, e.g. a mother's smoking during pregnancy (1); or postnatal, such as family and social conditions, as well as cultural and historical context (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Explain one limitation of the nature position. [2 marks]
Answer:
Family studies cannot easily separate genes from environment, as families share both (1); e.g. children may develop disorders because of shared upbringing, not shared genes (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.3.1 · Nature-nurture
Explain one implication of the nature-nurture debate. [2 marks]
Answer:
Nativist positions may lead to controversial conclusions, e.g. eugenics policies based on genetic differences (1); empiricist positions suggest behaviour can be changed, e.g. through therapy or social policy (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain the difference between holism and reductionism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Holism: behaviour should be studied as a whole system rather than its parts (1); reductionism: behaviour is best explained by breaking it into its constituent parts (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain what is meant by levels of explanation in Psychology. [3 marks]
Answer:
Behaviour can be explained at different levels, from the most basic to the most complex (1); e.g. for OCD: biochemical (low serotonin), neurological (the worry circuit), psychological (obsessive thoughts) (1); and socio-cultural (how OCD is viewed by society) (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain biological reductionism, with an example. [2 marks]
Answer:
Explaining behaviour at the level of biological structures, e.g. genes, neurotransmitters or the nervous system (1); e.g. explaining depression as being caused by low serotonin levels (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain environmental reductionism, with an example. [2 marks]
Answer:
Explaining all behaviour as a result of learned stimulus-response links (1); e.g. behaviourists explain attachment through classical and operant conditioning (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain one strength of reductionism. [2 marks]
Answer:
It enables behaviour to be broken down into variables that can be operationalised and tested scientifically (1); and it has led to effective treatments, e.g. drug therapies based on biochemical explanations (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain one limitation of holism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Holistic explanations are hard to test scientifically, as they involve many interacting factors (1); and they may lack practical value, as it is hard to know which factor to change (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Explain one limitation of reductionism. [2 marks]
Answer:
It may oversimplify complex behaviour and lose meaning, e.g. explaining aggression only in terms of testosterone ignores social context (1); and it ignores the influence of the situation, e.g. Zimbardo showed group behaviour that cannot be explained by individuals (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.3.1 · Holism and reductionism
Name one approach in Psychology that is holistic and one that is reductionist. [2 marks]
Answer:
Holistic: humanistic Psychology (1); reductionist: the biological approach (or the behaviourist approach) (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Explain the difference between the idiographic and nomothetic approaches. [2 marks]
Answer:
Idiographic: focuses on the individual, studying the person in depth, often using qualitative methods such as case studies (1); nomothetic: seeks to produce general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone, using quantitative methods with large samples (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Give one example of research in Psychology that uses the idiographic approach. [1 mark]
Answer:
Freud's case studies, e.g. Little Hans, or a case study such as HM (accept humanistic research).
Question 33 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Explain one strength of the idiographic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It provides a complete, detailed understanding of the individual, consistent with the aims of humanistic Psychology (1); it can complement nomothetic research by suggesting hypotheses for further study (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Explain one limitation of the idiographic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is narrow, so it is hard to generalise findings to the wider population (1); and methods are often less scientific, as interpretations are subjective (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Explain one strength of the nomothetic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It uses standardised, controlled methods with large samples, so findings are more scientific and generalisable (1); this allows predictions about behaviour and the development of treatments (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.3.1 · Idiographic and nomothetic
Explain one limitation of the nomothetic approach. [2 marks]
Answer:
It may lose the whole person, as individual experience is reduced to statistics (1); e.g. knowing there is a 1% lifetime risk of schizophrenia tells us little about what it is like to live with it (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Explain what is meant by socially sensitive research. [2 marks]
Answer:
Sieber and Stanley (1988) defined it as research where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group they represent (1); it may affect how others are viewed or treated, e.g. research into ethnicity or sexuality (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Outline Sieber and Stanley's four aspects of research that raise ethical implications. [4 marks]
Answer:
Implications: wider effects of research on the group studied (1); uses/public policy: how findings may be used, e.g. by government (1); validity: findings once seen as objective may later be shown to be biased, e.g. Burt's IQ research (1); framing the question: the way questions are phrased can introduce bias (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Explain one strength of socially sensitive research. [2 marks]
Answer:
It can benefit the groups studied, e.g. research into eyewitness testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice (1); and it can challenge stereotypes and promote a better understanding of under-represented groups (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Explain one limitation of socially sensitive research. [2 marks]
Answer:
Findings may be misused to support prejudice or discrimination, e.g. early IQ research was used to justify restrictions on immigration to the US (1); and participants may experience harm from being labelled (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Explain one ethical implication of Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation. [2 marks]
Answer:
It suggested mothers should stay at home with children, as separation could cause permanent harm (1); this may have created guilt in working mothers and influenced social policy against women working (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.3.1 · Ethical implications
Explain why research into the genetic basis of crime raises ethical implications. [2 marks]
Answer:
It could lead to people with certain genes being labelled as potential criminals (1); and it could be used to reduce responsibility for crime, with implications for the legal system (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how Milgram's research could be seen as an example of beta bias. [2 marks]
Answer:
The baseline study used only male participants (1); but findings were generalised to all people as an explanation of obedience, ignoring possible gender differences (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia could be seen as reductionist. [2 marks]
Answer:
It explains a complex disorder in terms of a single neurotransmitter (1); ignoring psychological and social factors such as family dysfunction and stress (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain why the cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
It suggests we can choose what information to attend to and how to think (1); but our choices are constrained by the limits of our cognitive system, e.g. schemas and capacity (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how social learning theory supports a nurture position. [2 marks]
Answer:
It suggests behaviour is learned from the environment through observation and imitation of models (1); and through vicarious reinforcement, e.g. children copied aggressive behaviour in Bandura's study (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how research into conformity can be culturally biased. [2 marks]
Answer:
Asch's research used American participants from an individualist culture (1); Smith and Bond (1998) found higher conformity in collectivist cultures, so findings cannot be applied universally (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how the psychodynamic approach shows both alpha bias and psychic determinism. [2 marks]
Answer:
Alpha bias: Freud claimed women were morally inferior because they had a weaker superego (1); psychic determinism: behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts in childhood (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain why Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health may be culturally biased. [2 marks]
Answer:
The criteria, e.g. self-actualisation and independence, reflect Western individualist values (1); in collectivist cultures, interdependence is valued, so people may be wrongly judged abnormal (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.3.1 · Applying issues and debates
Explain how the Strange Situation may show an imposed etic. [2 marks]
Answer:
It was developed in the US and assumes American attachment behaviours apply everywhere (1); e.g. Japanese infants were judged insecure-resistant, but their distress may reflect cultural norms of rarely being separated (1).

← 4.2.3 Research methods 4.3.2 Relationships →

Issues and debates in Psychology

All 50 questions and answers

More AQA A-level Psychology topics

Cookies on Knowledge Noodles

Cookie settings