AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.4

Population ecology and futures

50 exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.4 Population ecology and futures in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below. Not official AQA material.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Growth dynamics
Describe the shapes of the J-curve and S-curve of population growth. [4 marks]
Answer:
The J-curve shows exponential growth, where the population increases faster and faster (1); it may then crash when resources run out or disease strikes (1); the S-curve shows growth that starts slowly, speeds up and then levels off at the carrying capacity (1); in the S-curve, environmental resistance, such as food shortage, disease and competition, slows the growth (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Carrying capacity
Define the term carrying capacity. [2 marks]
Answer:
The maximum population that an area, or the Earth, can support indefinitely (1); using its resources sustainably and without degrading the environment (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Carrying capacity
Explain the factors that can change the carrying capacity of an area for people. [4 marks]
Answer:
Technology such as irrigation, fertilisers and high-yield crops can raise carrying capacity (1); trade and imports of food and energy can allow a population to exceed what its local land supports (1); climate change, soil erosion, water shortage and pollution can reduce carrying capacity (1); the lifestyle and consumption of people affect how many can be supported (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population and resources
Define the terms overpopulation, underpopulation and optimum population. [3 marks]
Answer:
Overpopulation is where there are too many people for the resources and technology available, leading to a low standard of living (1); underpopulation is where there are too few people to use the resources fully, so more people could raise the standard of living (1); optimum population is the number that gives the highest standard of living for the area (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population and resources
Explain why it is difficult to identify the optimum population of a country. [3 marks]
Answer:
Resources, technology and trade change over time, so the optimum constantly changes (1); the standard of living is difficult to measure and depends on how resources are shared (1); different people have different views about what is an acceptable standard of living and environmental impact (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population and resources
Explain why Bangladesh is often described as overpopulated, and why this can be questioned. [3 marks]
Answer:
It has about 170 million people in an area similar in size to England and Wales, with a density of over 1,000 per square kilometre, and has poverty, flooding and pressure on land (1); however, fertility has fallen from about 7 children per woman in the early 1970s to about 2 now, and food production has risen (1); Singapore has a much higher density but high living standards, so density alone does not show overpopulation (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population and resources
Explain why Australia could be described as underpopulated. [3 marks]
Answer:
It has about 26 million people in a very large area, with an average density of about 3 per square kilometre (1); most people live in coastal cities in the south-east, and large areas of the dry interior are almost empty (1); it has plentiful resources, such as minerals and farmland, and labour shortages in some industries, so it encourages immigration (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Ecological footprint
Define the term ecological footprint. [2 marks]
Answer:
The area of land and sea needed to supply the resources a population uses and to absorb its waste (1); measured in global hectares per person (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Ecological footprint
Describe the global pattern of ecological footprints. [3 marks]
Answer:
High-income countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia and the Gulf states have the largest footprints, typically over 6 global hectares per person (1); low-income countries, such as Bangladesh and many African countries, have footprints below 1 global hectare per person (1); the global footprint is larger than the Earth's biocapacity of about 1.6 hectares per person, so humanity uses the resources of about 1.7 Earths a year (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Ecological footprint
Explain why ecological footprints vary between countries. [3 marks]
Answer:
Richer countries consume more food, energy, goods and transport per person (1); diet, especially meat, and car use increase the footprint (1); countries with large areas of productive land, such as Brazil and Canada, may have a reserve, while densely populated countries import resources, so their footprint extends into other countries (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Ecological footprint
Describe ways in which an ecological footprint can be reduced. [3 marks]
Answer:
Using renewable energy and increasing energy efficiency in homes and transport (1); eating less meat and wasting less food (1); recycling and reusing goods and choosing public transport, walking and cycling (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population, resources and pollution
Describe the population, resources and pollution model developed by Meadows and the Club of Rome. [4 marks]
Answer:
The Limits to Growth study in 1972 used a computer model to link population, industrial output, food, resources and pollution (1); it showed that exponential growth would lead to resource depletion and pollution, causing the economy and population to collapse during the 21st century if nothing changed (1); it suggested that early policies could produce a stable, sustainable state (1); some later comparisons with real data have found that the world has followed its business-as-usual scenario quite closely (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population, resources and pollution
Explain the terms positive feedback and negative feedback, with an example for population. [3 marks]
Answer:
Positive feedback is where a change leads to further change in the same direction (1); negative feedback is where a change leads to a response that reduces the original change and restores balance (1); for example, population growth produces more births in the next generation, which is positive feedback, while famine or disease raising death rates is negative feedback (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population, resources and pollution
Explain how positive feedback can operate in the population, resources and pollution model. [3 marks]
Answer:
More people need more food and resources, so farming and industry expand (1); this increases pollution, deforestation and land degradation, which can reduce food output while population keeps growing (1); poverty from falling output encourages larger families, so population increases further and the degradation accelerates (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population, resources and pollution
Explain how negative feedback can operate in the population, resources and pollution model. [3 marks]
Answer:
If resources become scarce, prices rise, which encourages new technology, substitutes and more efficient use (1); famine and disease increase death rates and slow population growth (1); pollution that damages health can lead to policies, such as the Montreal Protocol, which reduce harmful activities and restore balance (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Population, resources and pollution
Evaluate the Limits to Growth model. [4 marks]
Answer:
It was an early warning that exponential growth on a finite planet is unsustainable, and it raised awareness of environmental limits (1); some comparisons of its scenarios with real data show reasonable agreement, with rising pollution and resource use (1); critics argued that it underestimated technology, the substitution of resources and the market response to scarcity (1); it simplified the world into a single system, and some of its predictions of shortages did not happen on time (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Describe the Malthusian view of population and resources. [4 marks]
Answer:
In 1798 Thomas Malthus argued that population grows geometrically, doubling in each generation, whereas food production grows only arithmetically, by a fixed amount each time (1); food supply would therefore fail to keep up with population (1); he believed that positive checks, such as famine, disease and war, would reduce numbers (1); preventive checks, such as delayed marriage and moral restraint, could limit population (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Evaluate the Malthusian view of population and resources. [4 marks]
Answer:
Malthus did not predict the effect of farm technology, such as fertilisers and the Green Revolution, which allowed food output to rise faster than population (1); fertility fell as countries developed, as shown by the demographic transition (1); however, there have been famines in areas such as the Sahel and the Horn of Africa, where population growth and drought outstripped food supply (1); the idea of limits has returned in concerns about climate change, water shortages and soil degradation (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Describe neo-Malthusian views about population growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Neo-Malthusians such as Paul Ehrlich argue that rapid population growth will exceed the Earth's capacity to support it (1); they stress modern limits such as climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss and water scarcity (1); they support family planning, education and birth control to slow growth, and lower consumption (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Describe Boserup's view of population and resources. [3 marks]
Answer:
In 1965 Ester Boserup argued that population growth stimulates agricultural innovation, so pressure leads to invention (1); as population density rises, farmers move from low-intensity systems such as shifting cultivation to more intensive systems, such as irrigation, terracing and multiple cropping (1); resource supply therefore adapts to population pressure, in contrast to the view of Malthus (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Describe how the Machakos Hills in Kenya support Boserup's view. [3 marks]
Answer:
Between the 1930s and 1990s the population of Machakos grew about sixfold (1); instead of worsening soil erosion, farmers built terraces, planted trees and adopted new crops and market links (1); output per hectare and living standards rose, although critics point out that the area benefited from migration, remittances and the nearby market of Nairobi (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Describe Simon's view of population growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
Julian Simon argued that people are the ultimate resource, because more people produce more ideas and innovation (1); he argued that resources are not fixed, as shortages lead to higher prices, new technology and substitutes (1); he won a bet with Ehrlich in 1980, when the prices of five metals fell over ten years (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.4.5 · Contrasting perspectives
Compare the views of Malthus, Boserup and Simon on population growth. [4 marks]
Answer:
Malthus argued that population growth is limited by food supply, whereas Boserup and Simon believed that people can adapt to growth (1); for Boserup, population pressure causes farming innovation, while Simon stressed human ingenuity and the role of markets (1); Malthus and neo-Malthusians favour limiting population, whereas Boserup and Simon see people as a source of solutions (1); each view fits some places and times, such as famine in the Sahel for Malthus and Machakos for Boserup (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Explain how ozone depletion affects human health. [3 marks]
Answer:
Thinning of the ozone layer lets more UV-B radiation reach the surface (1); this increases skin cancers, including melanoma, and eye cataracts (1); it can also suppress the immune system, and the effects are greatest for outdoor workers and in places such as Australia, New Zealand and southern Chile, close to the Antarctic ozone hole (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Describe the causes of ozone depletion and the response to it. [4 marks]
Answer:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from aerosols, fridges and foams release chlorine in the stratosphere, which destroys ozone (1); the Antarctic ozone hole was discovered by British scientists in 1985 (1); the Montreal Protocol of 1987 phased out CFCs, and has been signed by every country (1); the ozone layer is expected to recover to 1980 levels by about 2040 over most of the world, and around 2066 over Antarctica (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Explain how climate change causes thermal stress and the effects on health. [3 marks]
Answer:
Heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense, causing heat stroke, dehydration and heart and breathing problems (1); the 2003 European heatwave killed an estimated 70,000 people, and older people, children and city dwellers are most at risk (1); urban heat islands and a lack of air conditioning increase the risk, while milder winters may reduce cold-related deaths (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Explain how climate change may alter the distribution of vector-borne diseases. [4 marks]
Answer:
Warmer temperatures allow disease-carrying mosquitoes and ticks to survive at higher altitudes and latitudes (1); malaria may spread into highland areas of East Africa, and dengue fever is appearing in southern Europe (1); changing rainfall alters breeding sites, while floods and droughts can increase or decrease vector numbers (1); new diseases may emerge, such as Zika and chikungunya, and tick-borne Lyme disease is spreading north in Europe (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Explain how climate change may affect agricultural productivity and nutrition. [4 marks]
Answer:
Droughts, floods and heat stress reduce crop yields and livestock output, especially in tropical regions (1); higher carbon dioxide levels can reduce the protein, zinc and iron content of crops such as rice and wheat (1); food shortages and higher prices lead to malnutrition, stunting in children and food insecurity (1); fisheries may decline as oceans warm and become more acidic (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Explain why people in low-income countries are most vulnerable to the health impacts of global environmental change. [3 marks]
Answer:
They often live in the tropics, where heat and vector-borne diseases are already common (1); poverty, weak healthcare and poor infrastructure limit their ability to adapt, such as buying air conditioning or medicines (1); many rely on farming and fishing, so their food supplies and incomes are directly affected (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Environmental change and health
Assess the relative seriousness of the health impacts of ozone depletion and climate change. [6 marks]
Answer:
Ozone depletion causes skin cancer and cataracts, but the problem is recovering because of the Montreal Protocol (1); climate change affects health through heat, disease, food and water, and is continuing to get worse (1); the number of people affected by climate change is far greater than from ozone depletion (1); ozone depletion effects are mainly limited to UV exposure in certain regions, while climate change is global (1); the response to ozone shows that international action can work, but climate change is harder to tackle because it is linked to energy use and economic growth (1); climate change is therefore the greater threat, although both show how environmental change affects health (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Describe the UN projections for the global population. [4 marks]
Answer:
The world population passed 8 billion in 2022 (1); the UN projects it to peak at about 10.3 billion in the mid-2080s (1); it is then expected to fall slightly by 2100 (1); the projections vary depending on the assumptions about fertility, with low and high variants (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Describe the projected distribution of population growth. [3 marks]
Answer:
More than half of the growth to 2050 is projected to be in eight countries: DR Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines and Tanzania (1); sub-Saharan Africa is projected to grow from about 1.2 billion in 2022 to over 2 billion by 2050 (1); India overtook China in 2023 as the most populous country (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Explain why the populations of Europe and East Asia are projected to decline. [3 marks]
Answer:
Fertility rates are below replacement level, at about 1.5 in Europe and about 0.7–1.3 in China, Japan and South Korea (1); there are many older people and fewer women of childbearing age (1); immigration is low or restricted in East Asia, so it cannot offset the natural decrease (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Describe how the age structure of the world's population is projected to change. [3 marks]
Answer:
The share of people aged 65 and over is projected to rise from about 10% in 2022 to about 16% by 2050 (1); the number of people aged 80 and over will increase very rapidly (1); the working-age share will fall in most countries, except in Africa where the population will remain young (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Explain why population projections are uncertain. [3 marks]
Answer:
They depend on assumptions about future fertility, which can change quickly, as shown by China and South Korea (1); unexpected events such as pandemics, wars and famines affect deaths and migration (1); government policies, economic change and climate change may alter birth rates and migration (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population futures
Explain what is meant by population momentum. [3 marks]
Answer:
Population momentum is where a population continues to grow after fertility has fallen to replacement level (1); this is because there is a large number of young people who will become parents (1); many countries, such as India and Nigeria, will therefore keep growing for decades (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population and environment
Explain how future population growth may affect the environment. [4 marks]
Answer:
More people will increase demand for food, water and energy (1); this may cause more deforestation, soil degradation and loss of biodiversity as farmland expands (1); growth and urbanisation in Africa and Asia will raise greenhouse gas emissions unless energy is low carbon (1); more people living in coastal areas and cities at risk of flooding increases exposure to hazards (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population and environment
Explain why consumption may matter more than population numbers for the environment. [3 marks]
Answer:
The richest 10% of people are responsible for around half of global carbon emissions (1); a person in a high-income country has a much larger ecological footprint than one in a low-income country (1); the IPAT equation shows that impact depends on population, affluence and technology, not on numbers alone (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.4.6 · Population and environment
Critically assess the view that population growth will exceed the Earth's capacity to support it. [6 marks]
Answer:
Evidence for the view is that the global footprint is greater than biocapacity, and there is climate change, biodiversity loss and water shortage (1); population is growing fastest in regions where food security and resources are weakest, such as sub-Saharan Africa (1); evidence against is that the UN projects that growth will slow and peak this century as fertility falls (1); technology has raised food production faster than population in the past (1); the main pressure comes from consumption in rich countries and not from population numbers alone (1); the outcome depends on the choices made, so growth is a challenge that can be managed but not ignored (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Japan
Describe the pattern of population change in Japan. [3 marks]
Answer:
The population peaked at about 128 million in 2008 and has since fallen to about 124 million (1); it is projected to fall to about 87 million by 2070 (1); there are more deaths than births each year, and nearly 30% of the population is over 65 (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Japan
Explain the causes of population decline in Japan. [4 marks]
Answer:
Fertility is about 1.2 children per woman, well below the replacement level of about 2.1 (1); people marry later or not at all, because of long working hours, high housing and education costs and limited childcare (1); life expectancy is one of the highest in the world, at about 84 years, so the population is ageing (1); immigration is low, so it does not offset the natural decrease (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Japan
Explain the implications of population decline in Japan. [4 marks]
Answer:
There is a shortage of workers and a shrinking tax base, while pension and healthcare costs rise (1); rural areas are depopulating, with schools closing and about nine million empty homes, called akiya (1); government debt is high, and demand for housing and goods falls (1); there are some benefits, such as less pressure on land and resources, and the growth of robotics and care technology (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Japan
Describe Japan's responses to its population decline. [3 marks]
Answer:
It has raised the retirement age, and encouraged more women and older people into work (1); it has expanded childcare and given financial incentives to families, but fertility has remained low (1); it has introduced visas for more foreign workers in care and farming, and uses robots and automation in industry and care (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Nigeria
Describe the pattern of population change in Nigeria. [3 marks]
Answer:
Nigeria has over 220 million people, the largest population in Africa and the sixth largest in the world (1); the population has grown from about 38 million in 1950, at about 2.4% a year (1); it is projected to reach over 350 million by 2050, with a median age of about 18 (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Nigeria
Explain the causes of rapid population growth in Nigeria. [4 marks]
Answer:
Fertility is high, at about 5 children per woman (1); many people want large families because children provide labour and support for parents, and early marriage is common in the north (1); use of modern contraception is low, at under 20% of women, and girls' education is limited in the north (1); death rates have fallen because of better healthcare and vaccination, although infant mortality remains high (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Nigeria
Explain the implications of rapid population growth in Nigeria. [4 marks]
Answer:
There is great pressure on jobs, as millions of young people enter the labour market each year, and youth unemployment is high (1); rapid urban growth, such as in Lagos with about 15 million people, creates slums and strain on water, transport and housing (1); the north-east has seen conflict with Boko Haram, linked to poverty and few jobs (1); a demographic dividend could be gained if fertility falls and investment in education and jobs increases (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Place and health
Describe the differences in health between Calton in Glasgow and Lenzie, as an example of place and health. [3 marks]
Answer:
In the 2000s male life expectancy in Calton was in the mid-50s, compared with the low 80s in Lenzie, a place only about eight miles away (1); Calton had much higher rates of heart disease, cancer, and alcohol- and drug-related deaths (1); Lenzie, a commuter suburb, had a wealthier and healthier population (1). Illustrative example: use your own local area.
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Place and health
Explain the reasons for health differences between Calton and Lenzie. [4 marks]
Answer:
Calton was a deindustrialised inner-city area, with high unemployment and poverty after shipbuilding and heavy industry closed (1); poor housing, high levels of smoking, alcohol and drug use, poor diet, little green space and a lack of services affected health (1); Lenzie has higher incomes, better housing, more open space and easier access to healthcare (1); the Glasgow effect suggests that deprivation, stress and loss of community also play a role (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Place and health
Describe the relationship between place and health in Blackpool. [3 marks]
Answer:
Blackpool, a coastal resort in north-west England, has among the lowest life expectancies in England, at about 74 years for men and 79 for women (1); there is high deprivation, with seasonal low-paid work, unemployment, poor private rented housing, and high rates of smoking, alcohol and drug use (1); the coastal location offers fresh air and open space, but socio-economic factors have a stronger influence than the physical environment (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.4.7 · Place and health
Assess the extent to which health in a local area is determined by its physical environment rather than its socio-economic character. [6 marks]
Answer:
Physical factors such as air pollution, flood risk, damp housing and access to green space can affect health (1); coastal or rural settings may offer cleaner air and chances for exercise (1); however, in Calton and Blackpool, poverty, unemployment and lifestyle seem to be more important (1); attitudes and behaviour, such as smoking, alcohol and diet, affect how people use their environment (1); access to healthcare and education reduces the effect of a poor environment (1); the two interact, as poorer people often live in the worst environments, so socio-economic character is usually the stronger influence (1).

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